CIassical Music

                            Indian classical music

 INTRODUCTION

 Indian classical music is one of the oldest forms of music in the world. It has it oots in diverse areas such as the ancient religious vedic hymns, tribal chants, o devotional temple music, and folk music[2]. Indian music is melodic in nature, as pposed to Western music which is harmonic. The most important point to note is s p that movements in Indian classical music are on a one-note-at-a-time basis. Thi rogression of sound patterns along time is the most significant contributor to the tune s n and rhythm of the presentation, and hence to the melody[2]. Although Indian music i ow divided into the two major classes of Hindusthani (Northern Indian) and Karnatak e t or Carnatic (Southern Indian), the origins and fundamental concepts of both thes ypes of music are the same. The form of presentation may however vary between the two systems, as well as from one gharana (family) to another in the former system. The fundamental concepts that have to be understood at the outset are those of f t swara (musical note), raga (a melodic concept, or scale of notes) and tala (beats o iming or rhythm). This paper begins with an introduction to these concepts. i Examples of raga -s and musical compositions in the Hindusthani style are used to llustrate the important features of Indian music. Most of the discussion, however, should be applicable to the Karnatak system as well, and to Indian music in genera

SWARA-S: THE MUSICAL NOTES

 Unlike the case in Western music, the musical notes used in Indian music are not r at standardized frequencies. One may choose any frequency of convenience as the eference, and this frequency would then act as the tonic or base of reference for the u music to be presented. Before entering the realm of the swara -s, we should nderstand the concept of octaves.

THE OCTAVE:

While it may be convenient at first sight to see the entire gamut of notes on any t s instrument, for example the piano, as a sequential arrangement of different notes, i oon becomes apparent that there are notes that sound "similar", but are at different i frequencies or pitches[2]. Pairs of such notes, where the frequency of the higher note s twice that of the lower note, define a range of notes called an octave. Such a higher r note, and further notes that are at integral multiples of the frequency of the lower note eferred to, are called the harmonics of the lower note. Thus the entire range of notes B available may be seen as a cyclical arrangement of octaves.

MICRONOTES AND NOTES:

 It has been observed, by ancient Indian musicians as well as more recent d musicians and musicologists across the world, that the human ear is capable of istinguishing at the most 22 musically different or significant notes within any given e c octave. These notes are referred to as micronotes, or shruti. Seven of these notes ar onsidered to be the basic notes or swara -s in Indian classical music. For this reason,an octave is called a saptak, meaning a group of seven notes. The basic reference note 4 the tonic) is called shadja (abbreviated as sa in singing and writing, as S here). c While this could be at any frequency, let us consider it to be at 240 Hz (Hertz = ycles per second) for the sake of illustration and further discussion. The octave H spanning 240-480 Hz is then the madhya saptak or middle octave, the range 120-240 z is the lower octave or mandra saptak, and the frequencies 480-960 Hz make up the r taar saptak or higher octave. The remaining notes in an octave are defined with eference to S, and are called rishabh (ri or ray, R), gandhaar (ga, G), madhyam (ma, a M), pancham (pa, P), dhaivat (dha, D), and nishad (ni, N). (These notes correspond pproximately to the notes C, D , E , F , G , A and B in the Western music scale.) The s S next note would be the first note of the next octave, a shadja again, which is written a . , and the same sequence repeats for the higher notes. The ranges S −M and P −S . are s f called the lower and upper tetrachords of the middle octave. The same pattern repeat or the lower octave as well, with the notes written as, e.g., N. . With S at 240 Hz, the H nominal frequencies of R , G , M , P , D and N are 270, 300, 320, 360, 405 and 450 z in the shuddha or pure scale of Indian music[3]. It is readily seen that these s g frequencies do not bear an additive relationship. The progression of notes i eometric, being related by the fifth, i.e., P /S = D /R = N/G = S . /M = 1.5 [3]. In s b terms of the micronotes, the difference or spacing between the above basic notes varie etween two, three, and four [1]. These basic notes are called the shuddha swara -s, , p meaning pure notes. Of these notes, S , on account of its being the tonic, and P erhaps to serve as a secondary reference at the middle of an octave, are considered to be immobile, or achala swara -s. Five additional notes are obtained by altering the 5 i remaining five basic notes as follows. The notes R , G , D , and N are lowered slightly n frequency (by one or two micronotes) to get their flat or komal versions, written as oR , ✁G , ✂D , and N. The note M , however, is moved to a slightly higher frequency to btain its sharp or teevra variant, written as M′ . With the altered or vikrit swara -s included, an octave now has twelve notes as follows:

                 S R R ✁G G M M′ P ✂D D N N.

THE IMPORTANCE OF THE TONIC AND THE DRONE: With the notes defined as above, the importance of the tonic S cannot be s a understated. The tonic is, simply stated, the basis of the music. All the musical note re defined with respect to the chosen S . A musician has to continuously refer to the , a S to create the other notes, and to remain in tune or shruti (in the case of vocal music nd instruments without frets or keys for all the notes). In fact, the first exercise given e s a student is to sing repeatedly the notes S , P , S . , in order to establish the shruti. Th hadja is also the state of rest, which if not provided often could lead to a state of m unrest, unease, or confusion[2]. While there can be no raga without the shadja as ay be readily seen from the above discussion, it is sparingly used on purpose in the e a raga Marva to create the feeling of unrest to bring out the corresponding mood of lat fternoon, at which time it is to be sung. The continuous tonic required by an Indian musician is provided by a variety of t instruments. The most commonly used drone, as such an instrument is called, is the ambura or tanpura. This is a stringed instrument, with four or five long strings on an unfretted board, ending in a large resonating chamber hollowed out of wood or a


gourd shell. The strings are tuned to P . , S , S , and . S. (The P . S serves as an addition reference at the middle of the octave, although the notes M. or N. may be used a sometimes instead of the P . .) The strings are plucked cyclically one at a time in a slow nd steady pace. The contacts of the strings with the bridge are tempered with s p threads, which lends to the creation of a unique set of harmonics of each of the note roduced by the strings. Additional notes are also generated by the combination of the b basic notes produced by the strings. This effect, coupled with the resonance created y the chamber, gives the sound of the instrument a quality its own. The instrument r also lends a good sustenance to the sounds, and thus the musician is immersed in the equired tonic reference sounds. By referring to these sounds, the musician may derive other notes by either consonance or dissonance. Reed-based drones, called shruti petti (box of notes), are also available, where e t bellows are used to force air through one or more reeds at the same notes as in th anpura. In this case, however, all the notes are produced together, and hence merge o to create a different effect. The swaramandal (a group or assembly of notes) is a kind f a mini harp, which is used by some musicians to provide the reference. This is a s u multi-stringed hand-held instrument, where the strings are tuned to the various note sed in the composition or raga to be rendered. Gliding strokes of finger nails are r g used to set selected groups of these strings into vibration, giving the musician a wide roup of reference notes. Modern technology has entered Indian classical music as i p well, and electronic instruments that simulate the sounds of the tanpura and the shrutipetti are now available


D. VARIABILITY OF THE NOTES IN INDIAN MUSIC: In spite of the above definitions of the notes, it must be noted that some swara -s b are not constant always even with respect to the same S . Depending upon the raga eing presented, and to create certain special effects and moods, the same note may l r take different frequencies. This is commonly done in the case of the note R (koma ishabh) which is moved very close to S in, for example, the raga Shree to create the i unstable and dissonant mood of dusk, at which time it is sung. This kind of flexibility s provided by the sitar by means of movable frets. In the case of the bamboo flute or c bansuri this is achieved simply by varying the partially closed area of the orresponding hole by appropriate positioning of the corresponding finger. Instruments , a with fixed frequencies for all the notes, like the harmonium or the piano for example re thus not always well-suited for Indian classical music. For this reason, m traditional musicians do not use the harmonium, which however is currently used by any

CREATING CONTINUITY IN MUSIC: Given the fact that the notes are presented one at a time in Indian music, and the r t fact that the notes used are at different frequencies as defined earlier, it may appea hat a musical presentation would be discrete and discontinuous. This however is far v from the real situation. Continuity is provided both in time and frequency through arious tonal graces. Some tonal transitions may be smoothed by gliding from one t note to the other. On a stringed instrument such as a sitar one may, while staying on he same fret, pull the string to obtain some of the higher notes. This effect, known as
meend gives continuity in both time and frequency. In another grace known a rintan, four notes are produced in rapid succession on a single stroke of the string of . T the sitar by a complex sequence of plucking the string and pressing on different frets he general term used to describe such effects is gamaka, which encompasses many d t graces comparable to the shake, trill, glide, swing, etc. It should however be note hat such graces are not to be used without proper care. Depending upon the raga y g being presented, practice dictates the places where one may and may not emplo races. Again, fixed-note instruments such as the piano and harmonium are not always a well-suited for Indian classical music as many of the required gamaka -s cannot be chieved on them.

III. RAGA: THE MELODIC CONCEPT
Technically speaking, a raga is simply a group of notes or swara -s. This however, would be a gross understatement, as there are many more qualifiers required y d to establish the many fine features of any given raga, which may be more aptl escribed as a melodic concept or seed idea, to be led to blossom by the musician[1]. a The basic definition of a raga in terms of the allowed notes merely specifies the lphabet available. One has to know many more details such as the syntax, the c phraseology, and the idiomatics of the chosen raga in order to be able to ommunicate, i.e., to present a composition to an audience and create the appropriate e c meaning and mood. We shall now take as examples a few raga -s to illustrate thes concepts.

 SCALE AND MOVEMENTS OF A RAGA At the outset, a raga is defined by the notes allowed in its ascent (aaroh) and t o descent (avaroh) in an octave. For example, the raga Yaman, which is always the firs ne taught to students, uses the notes S , R , G , M′ , P , D , and N. However, it is m extremely important to add immediately that the aaroh is always NRGM′DNS . , and the ovements SRG or MPDN are not used at all. The notes S and P , although allowed e d in the raga, are never used in moving up. All the above notes may be used in th escent, which could be written as S . NDPM′GRS . Some passages in this raga are, for p example: N. D. N. RS , SN. D. P . , M. ′D. N. , N. RS , N. RGM′P , M′PM′DP −RG , (− represents a ause of one time unit or an unstruck continuation of the previous note for one more ) e time unit), N. RGM′PR , and GRS . These examples, known as pakad (catch phrase stablish the chalan (movement) or phraseology of Yaman. Thus familiarity with e p appropriate tonal transitions is essential. In spite of these restrictions, innumerabl assages and combinations of these notes are possible, of course. Indeed, a goodmusician should be able to present a raga for more than an hour without having t epeat the same passages in total.
Thus a raga is basically established by the notes used in its ascent and descent. o This feature lends to a few modes of classification of raga -s. Based upon the number f notes used, the classes are termed oudav, shadav and sampoorn, meaning pentatonic m (5-noted), hexatonic (6-noted) and complete (heptatonic or 7-noted). Note that a raga ay be oudav in ascent, and shadav in descent, and so on. While Yaman is a S sampoorn raga, Shreeranjani is oudav-shadav with the scales SG✁MDN S . and .NDMG✂RS [6]. Raga Brindavani Sarang uses N in ascent but N in descent as

N. SRMPNS . and S .NPMRS , but is still classified as oudav-oudav[6]. Considering the movement of notes that characterize a raga in ascent and descent, it may also be , w classified as straight or crooked (vakra gati). For example, raga Darbari Kanada hich is sampoorn-shadav, has the scales N. SRG✁RSMPD✁NS . and S .✁DNPMPG✂MRS [6], c with the meandering of the notes and a distinct grace on ✂G giving the raga its special harm. In addition to the above characterizations, a raga may be said to be poorvanga r t pradhan or uttaranga pradhan, depending upon the dominant usage of the lowe etrachord and lower octave, or the upper tetrachord and upper octave respectively. e n Some of the basic requirements of a raga are: (a) A raga must use at least fiv otes of an octave in both ascent and descent; (b) There can be no raga without S (the s tonic or reference); (c) A raga must have at least one of the notes M , M′ and P (to erve as an additional reference for the upper tetrachord); and (d) While a note and its i altered version may both be used in a raga, they cannot be used consecutively. As an llustration of the last rule, while Brindavani Sarang uses both N and N, they are used r N when moving up scale or down scale respectively, but never consecutively like NN o N. Passages such as NNS . S . S . −NP , S . R . NS . PN MP , and S . R . S .NPN PM illustrate the r t appropriate usage of the two notes[5]. These rules are very general, and it may appea hat thousands of raga -s are possible. However, when the essential requirement of a l p raga as a melodic idea is taken into account, many of the mere mathematica ermutations and combinations get discarded. (The same applies to combinations and n f transitions of notes within a raga). It is said that while about 250 raga -s have bee ormulated as practically feasible melodies, a trained person may be able to recognize a maximum of about a hundred of them, and a top musician may render about 25 raga-s although being able to master only about a dozen of them

DOMINANT NOTES OF A RAGA: In listening to a proper rendition of any raga, it will be observed that a particular i note will be given prominence by using it repeatedly, by using it at emphatic positions n the composition, etc. Such a note is termed the vadi or dominant note of the raga. s A raga is, in addition, characterized by a second sub-dominant note, called the amvadi. The vadi and samvadi are usually separated by 4 or 5 notes, and thus serve e o as anchor points in the two tetrachords of an octave for the raga. Appropriate usag f these two notes is essential in the presentation of a raga. Pairs of raga -s that use i a the same notes and have even the same movements, but possess different notes as vad nd samvadi to create different effects do exist. For example, the raga -s Bhoop and d D Deshkar have the same scales SRGPDS . and S . DPGRS . However, Bhoop has G an for vadi and samvadi, whereas they are D and G for Deshkar. Statistical analyses p of the notes used in renditions of these raga -s have confirmed these features in ractice as well
The notes not used in a raga also deserve special attention. Such a note is ) c known as the vivadi or enemy, as injection of such a varjit swara (the left-out note ould lead to a jarring effect and spoil the mood of the raga. e n Couplets known as dohay have been written for most of the raga -s, listing th otes used, vadi/ samvadi, and varjit swara -s to aid memorization[6]. Longer verses s called lakshan geet describing each raga in more detail have also been composed, and et to tune in the corresponding raga.

APPROPRIATE PUNCTUATION:
Another important aspect of a raga that is mentioned in some texts, but is more e p effectively brought out only by continuous training and practise is that of appropriat unctuation. Stopping at the wrong note can not only change the mood of a raga, but . T it may even introduce a different mood or create aesthetic and technical confusion[1] aking the example of Bhoop and Deshkar again, yet another aspect the two differ by e s is in the appropriate nyas (point of stasis or rest). While in the case of Bhoop on hould not stop on P , it is the note R where a pause should not be made in y n Deshkar[1]. Similarly, practice alone teaches about notes from which one may or ma ot start a phrase in a given raga

MOOD AND TIMING OF A RAGA: The concepts of mood and timing of a raga are not readily amenable to scientific t analysis, are controversial, and may even be alleged to be ingrained merely by radition and folklore. Patient and careful listening and analysis will however lend s o credibility to these concepts at least in a few cases. Any bias introduced by wording f the composition may be easily ruled out by analyzing instrumental performances, or the abstract exposition of a raga in an alap. The most readily noticeable effects are brought out by raga -s that make use of t b the notes R , ✁D and M′ . These notes strike dissonances with S , P and M that canno e missed or dismissed, and this feature lends the raga -s that make use of them a t d definite characteristic that has been linked to the semi-conscious state of the mind a awn and dusk, the sandhiprakash or twilight times[1, 2]. Proper renditions of suchraga -s indeed bring out the appropriate effects. The notes M and M′ are used ogether (an exception to rule (d) stated earlier) in the early morning raga Lalit, which NDM′DM′MGR S [6], to create a mood . c has the scales N. RGMM′MGM′DS . and R orresponding to the unstable state just before sunrise. The early morning raga e c Bhibhas has the scales SR GPD✁PS . and S .✂DPGPD✂PGR S , and possesses a very seren haracter corresponding to sunrise. Almost all of the Hindusthani raga -s have been s m assigned specific times of the day, and some are even assigned seasons such a onsoon, spring, and harvest. The bases of such associations with moods and times , m not only lie with the notes used by the raga -s, but also with the dominant notes ovements, graces, tempo, octaves and levels used, etc[2]. h m Let us now take up a brief study of Marva, Pooriya, and Sohini, all of which take use of the same notes S , R , G , M′ , D , N and S . . They possess different dominant notes and differ in movements, however, and hence are assigned different
 times, and indeed create different moods. Marva has been assigned the time of late e f afternoon, as the mood created by it corresponds to the uneasy and uncomfortabl eelings at the end of the day. Its scales are SR GM′DNDS . and S . NDM′GR S [6]. The e p dominant use of the dissonant note R and D as vadi/ samvadi, the use of M′ , and th articularly sparing use of S lend to the creation of these moods. A typical movement ND NDM′DM′G M′GR S [5]. By moving around . NR . G . R . a of this raga is D. N. RGM′DNR nd suggesting the tonic S , but mostly avoiding it, movements as above create tension S . and S . NDM′GR S , and G . a and desire for rest. Pooriya has the scales N. RSGM′DNR nd N for vadi and samvadi[6]. Some of its typical movements are N e . RGM′DGM′ −G −R −S − − −, N. R − −N. M. ′− −, and D. N. R −S [5]. As may be seen, theraga is poorvanga pradhan. It is assigned the time of dusk. The scales of Sohini are GM′DNS . and S . R . S . NDM′DM′GR S , with D and G for vadi/ samvadi[6]. Some of its −S . −, DNS . DNS . DN S . NDM′ GGR S , and . S movements are NDNS . NDM′G M′DNS . R . R . NS . DN M′D NS . DN M′D GM′ M′DGM′ M′GR S N. SGM′DNS . − N. SGM′DNS . − , m DNS . DNS . DN. As evident from these movements, this is an uttaranga pradhan raga aking use of the upper tetrachord and higher octave notes more often. The time s d assigned to Sohini is the last quarter of the night. Thus the mood of a raga i etermined not merely by the notes used, but by their appropriate use and emphasis, and by the right movements.

IV. TALA: THE SENSE OF RHYTHM


Just as the concept of the octave breaks down the gamut of notes into cycles o similar sounding" notes, the continuum of time is broken into cycles or avartan -s by d w the concept of the tala[2]. Simply stated, a tala is the beat given for timing notes an ords in a musical composition. It is cyclical, and gives the musician the rhythm and n a tempo. In Indian classical music this is provided by different kinds of drums, know s tabla, pakhavaj, and mridangam. While ancient books mention 108 different tala -s, only about a dozen of them are commonly used in current practice. The basic beat or theka of a tala is described using words called bole -s which e s relate to the different sounds of the tabla. The beat that starts a cycle is called th am and marked with an X. Another beat that is given importance is the khali (o), which is usually the beat at the beginning of the second half of the cycle. These twobeats, which have distinct sounds in each tala aid the musician in remaining in laya o empo. The most commonly used tala is the teental or trital, which has 16 beats or f t matra -s per cycle, broken into four sub-groups of four beats each.
 The theka o eental is as follows:
 X
 dha dhin dhin dha dha dhin dhin dha
 (1 2 3 4    (5 6 7 8)
 na tin tin ta na dhin dhin dha
 (9 10 11 12 (13 14 15 16 )

the theka -s of a few other commonly used tala -s[1, 5] are as follows:
 Ektal:
X
 dhin dhin na truk tin na kat tin na truk dhin na
(   1 2 3)    (4 5 6)      (7 8 9)           (10 11 12)
X or

   dhin dhin dhage tirakita tu na kat ta dhage tirakita dhi nan
    (1 2 3 4       (5 6 7)    (9 10 )      (11 12)

Jhaptal: o a ( dhi na dhi dhi na ti na ti ti n 1 2) (3 4 5) (6 7) (8 9 10) o Roopak tal: X ti ti na dhin na dhin na (1 2 3) (4 5) (6 7)
Kerava: ha ge na ti na ka dhi na ) o (1 2 3 4) (5 6 7 8 r dha ge dhage truk dha tin take truk ) D (1 2 3 4 ) (5 6 7 8 adra: dha dhin na dha tin na ) T (1 2 3) (4 5 6 he last two of these tala -s are used in light compositions only. Note that although f t some of the bole -s above are complex and made up of up to four strokes or sounds o he tabla (e.g, ti-ra-ki-ta), each of them is given the same time unit (matra) as the r c other bole -s in the tala. The sub-groups indicated within each cycle are fo onvenience only, and different compositions set to the same tala may have different t internal groupings. The above are only representative beats of the tala -s, and the abla player does indeed play other variations of the basic beats and improvisations, a maintaining however the cyclical pattern and indicating the sam and khali with the ppropriate beats always. Any such improvisation, however, must begin on a sam and e c end immediately prior to another sam, thus extending over one or more complet ycles of the tala. The speed of the beats or pace is described by the adjectives vilambit, madhya ) i and dhrut, meaning slow, medium and fast tempos. The additional adjective ati (very s also used with the first and the last tempos. In the Hindusthani style, these tempos . A do not have any standardized timings or inter-relationships, and are only relative lso, one may move gradually from one pace to another.